Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing Insights

Overview of material extrusion technology in additive manufacturing

Intro

Material extrusion additive manufacturing represents a significant evolution in production and design methodologies. This technique is characterized by layering materials to create three-dimensional objects directly from a digital model. It has garnered attention not only for its technical capability but also for its implications across various industries. Through this article, the principles, methodologies, benefits, and applications of material extrusion will be meticulously examined.

Advancements in additive manufacturing have paved the way for innovative design, rapid prototyping, and a new frontier in custom manufacturing. It is essential for students and professionals alike to gain a comprehensive understanding of how this technology operates, the materials involved, and the potential it holds for the future.

Research Overview

Summary of Key Findings

The exploration of material extrusion additive manufacturing reveals several key points. Firstly, its primary technique employs thermoplastic filaments that can be melted and then deposited layer by layer. This results in the construction of objects that can range from simple prototypes to complex functional parts. Moreover, this approach is not limited to plastics, as new materials such as composites and bio-based filaments are gaining momentum in the field.

Secondly, while the flexibility of design is a major advantage, challenges exist. These include issues relating to material properties, post-processing requirements, and the given accuracy of printed components.

Research Objectives and Hypotheses

The objective of this research is to disentangle the complexities of material extrusion additive manufacturing. The hypotheses guiding this study include:

The advantages of material extrusion will outweigh the challenges faced in practical applications.
The adoption of novel materials will expand the scope and efficiency of current manufacturing processes.

The research aims to provide a grounded overview of additive manufacturing and its significant role in modern production. It will also inform industry professionals of emerging trends that could influence their practices.

Methodology

Study Design and Approach

This article adopts a descriptive research design to analyze the principles of material extrusion additive manufacturing. It systematically explores the methodologies employed in the process, complemented by an assessment of current trends. The approach underscores the need for empirical data to substantiate claims about advantages and limitations.

Data Collection Techniques

Information was gathered through various channels, including scholarly articles, industry reports, and case studies. Sources such as en.wikipedia.org and britannica.com served as foundation materials, presenting factual content relevant to the topic. Insights from forums like reddit.com were also reviewed to gather practical insights from users working with additive manufacturing directly.

Preface to Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing

Material extrusion additive manufacturing is a significant method in the broader field of manufacturing technologies. This section aims to elucidate the core aspects of this process, highlighting its distinct advantages, and the considerations that are paramount for practitioners in the field.

Additive manufacturing itself is not merely about creating objects but revolutionizing the way products are conceived, designed, and produced. With the increasing complexity of engineering designs and product demands, material extrusion stands out for its ability to create intricate geometries that traditional techniques may struggle to replicate. This methodology employs materials in a layer-by-layer manner, allowing for enhanced customization and reduced waste. This approach not only accelerates design cycles but also drives down costs significantly. The relevance of this technology is underscored by the surge of interest in sustainable manufacturing practices, where precision and efficiency are equally prioritized.

Defining Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing is defined as a process of creating a three-dimensional object from a digital file. This is achieved by adding material, usually layer by layer, until the desired shape is formed. Unlike traditional manufacturing, which often involves subtracting material, additive manufacturing offers a more resource-efficient alternative. It allows for complex designs that can integrate several functions into a single component, thus reducing the need for assemblies.

The various methods within additive manufacturing are categorized based on their technologies, and material extrusion is a prominent subtype that has gained widespread adoption due to its accessibility and versatility. It utilizes thermoplastic filaments, which are melted and extruded through a nozzle to build parts up to the specified precision.

History and Evolution

The history of material extrusion can be traced back to the development of three-dimensional printing technologies in the late 20th century. The initial concepts revolved around rapid prototyping, with Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) by Scott Crump drawing particular attention as one of the earliest techniques in this domain.

Since its inception, material extrusion technologies have evolved significantly. The early machines were expensive, cumbersome, and limited in terms of material options and scale. However, advancements in technology have transformed these machines into more affordable and efficient systems. In parallel, new materials have been developed that expand the utility of material extrusion beyond prototyping to include final product manufacturing. This evolution reflects a broader trend within additive manufacturing as it transitions from niche applications to mainstream use across various industries.

Fundamental Principles of Material Extrusion

Material extrusion stands as a pivotal domain within the realm of additive manufacturing. It encompasses techniques that directly influence the efficiency and capabilities of 3D printing processes. Understanding the fundamental principles behind this method is crucial for anyone engaged in design, engineering, or manufacturing sectors. This section delves into the core mechanics of extrusion and the layer-by-layer construction method, illuminating how these components contribute to the overall integrity and functionality of 3D printed items.

Mechanics of Extrusion

The mechanics behind material extrusion is the process where filament material, normally thermoplastic, is fed through a heated nozzle. As it moves through the nozzle, it melts and is extruded in a precise pattern onto a substrate. The design of the extruder is critical, as it must ensure consistent flow to maintain the intended geometry of each layer. Here are key considerations in this process:

Feedstock Consistency: The extrusion process relies heavily on the quality of the feed filament. Variations in diameter can lead to inconsistent extrusion rates, affecting the final product's strength and appearance.
Temperature Control: The temperature must be controlled to ensure the material melts properly without degrading. This balance is crucial, as overheating can lead to material breakdown, while underheating may result in poor adhesion between layers.
Nozzle Design: The design of the nozzle affects not only the flow rate of the material but also its cooling rate. Selection of the right nozzle size is important to achieve the desired level of detail and surface finish.

Understanding these mechanics helps users to optimize their print settings, ultimately impacting the final product quality.

Layer-by-Layer Construction

Layer-by-layer construction is fundamental to additive manufacturing processes. This approach involves depositing material in successive layers, gradually building a 3D object from the bottom up. Each layer solidifies before the next is applied, allowing intricate designs and structures that are hard to achieve through traditional manufacturing methods. Key aspects of this method include:

Various materials used in additive manufacturing processes

Adhesion Between Layers: Successful layer bonding is essential for creating a strong part. If the layers do not adhere properly, it can lead to weak spots, which compromise the structural integrity of the final product.
Customization and Complexity: The ability to create complex geometries without additional tooling allows for high design flexibility. This is particularly advantageous in industries that require bespoke components, such as aerospace and medical fields.
Iteration and Speed: As designs can be easily modified, layer-by-layer construction allows for rapid prototyping. This can significantly reduce time to market for new products, enabling faster adaptation to market demands.

By grasping the principles of layer-by-layer construction, practitioners can better navigate the production process, ensuring high-quality and reliable outputs.

"The synergy of proper mechanics and strategic layer construction defines successful material extrusion outcomes."

This foundational understanding of material extrusion principles underscores their significance in subsequent applications and innovations within additive manufacturing. Recognizing how these elements interlink paves the way for enhanced exploration and growth in this dynamic field.

Materials Used in Material Extrusion

Materials serve a fundamental role in material extrusion additive manufacturing. The choice of material not only influences the final product's functionality but also affects the manufacturing process itself. Generally, the main categories of materials used in this approach include thermoplastics, biomaterials, and composite materials. Understanding each material type is crucial for engineers, designers, and researchers aiming to optimize products for specific applications.

Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are the most commonly used materials in material extrusion additive manufacturing. These polymers become pliable when heated and solidify upon cooling, making them ideal for various applications. The advantages of thermoplastics include their versatility and ease of processing. Popular thermoplastics like PLA (polylactic acid) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) provide different strengths and thermal properties.

Their broad range of applications includes prototyping, and production parts for consumer goods. However, thermoplastics also come with limitations. Their temperature resilience and mechanical properties can differ significantly, which can affect the performance of the end product. The choice of thermoplastic must align with the intended use of the item being produced.

Biomaterials

Biomaterials represent a growing segment in material extrusion. These materials are designed for medical applications, including tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. Common examples include hydrogels and specialized thermoplastics that are safe for human use. The importance of biomaterials lies in their biocompatibility and ability to integrate with biological systems.

Incorporating biomaterials into additive manufacturing can improve treatment outcomes. However, challenges remain. The complexities of biomaterial properties require careful material selection and control during the manufacturing process. Regulatory standards in medical applications also add an additional layer of scrutiny and requirement that industry professionals must navigate.

Composite Materials

Composite materials combine two or more distinct materials to achieve specific properties that are superior to individual components. In material extrusion, composites can enhance mechanical strength, thermal stability, and other performance metrics. Examples include carbon fiber-reinforced plastics and metal-filled filaments.

Using composite materials can significantly expand the scope of applications in industries like aerospace and automotive. They allow for lightweight designs while maintaining strength and durability. Despite the advantages, processing composites can be more challenging due to their varied characteristics. Precise control of the extrusion parameters becomes critical to avoid defects in the final product.

In material extrusion additive manufacturing, the selection of materials is one of the most critical decisions impacting performance, cost, and sustainability.

Understanding the complex nature of these materials is essential. Whether engineers choose thermoplastics for their versatility, biomaterials for their compatibility with human systems, or composites for their enhanced properties, each choice comes with its own set of benefits and considerations.

Common Techniques in Material Extrusion

Material extrusion plays a crucial role in the additive manufacturing landscape. Within this subset of manufacturing technologies, different techniques serve varied purposes. Understanding these techniques not only enhances one's grasp of the field but also highlights the innovation potential and adaptability inherent to material extrusion.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused Deposition Modeling, commonly referred to as FDM, is one of the most prominent techniques in material extrusion. This method typically uses thermoplastic filaments, which are heated to the melting point before being extruded through a nozzle. The nozzle moves in two dimensions, creating layers by depositing material according to a computer-aided design (CAD) model.

The importance of FDM lies in its accessibility and versatility.

Widely Used: FDM technology is among the most commonly used in both industrial and home settings. Its user-friendly nature makes it appealing for beginners and expert users alike.
Cost-Effectiveness: Due to affordable printers and materials, FDM offers a low entry barrier for those desiring to engage in additive manufacturing.
Material Variety: Users can choose from a broad spectrum of thermoplastics, including ABS, PLA, and PETG. This variety allows for tailored projects based on mechanical properties needed.

However, there are considerations that come with FDM technology:

Speed Limitations: Printing speed can be slower than alternative methods, particularly on higher-quality settings.
Strength Variability: Depending on the print settings and materials, the strength can vary greatly. It is essential to optimize conditions for different applications.

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)

Fused Filament Fabrication is a term closely related to FDM. In fact, many use the terms interchangeably. However, FFF often emphasizes the more open-source aspect of the technology. This technique also relies on thermoplastic filaments but can be distinguished by its community-driven innovations and lower technical barriers.

Key aspects of FFF include:

Open-Source Nature: Many FFF printers are designed to be customizable, providing users the opportunity to modify their machines as needed. This has fostered an extensive community of users who share knowledge and improvement ideas.
Broad Application Range: FFF is suitable for rapid prototyping, educational applications, and specialized projects in engineering and design.
Resource Availability: The technique often employs readily available materials, further supporting the ability to prototype efficiently.

Despite its advantages, challenges remain:

Limited Material Choices: While it offers flexibility, some specialized materials may not perform as well under the FFF technique compared to other methods of extrusion.
Quality Control: Variability in extrusion can affect the final product's quality, making user experience important for optimal results.

In summary, both Fused Deposition Modeling and Fused Filament Fabrication are integral to material extrusion. Their unique characteristics make them suitable for a range of applications. Those engaged in the field must consider their strengths and weaknesses while selecting appropriate approaches for their specific requirements.

Advantages of Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing

Innovative applications of material extrusion in various industries

Material extrusion additive manufacturing stands out in the manufacturing landscape due to its significant advantages. Understanding these benefits helps in comprehending why it has gained popularity across various industries. This section will address crucial aspects such as cost-effectiveness, design flexibility, and the ability for rapid prototyping. Each benefit contributes to the broader applicability of material extrusion throughout different sectors.

Cost-Effectiveness

Cost-effectiveness is a prominent reason for the widespread adoption of material extrusion additive manufacturing. This method employs materials efficiently, reducing waste during the production process. The additive nature of this technology allows for precise layering, which means that only the material needed for a specific part is utilized. In traditional manufacturing methods, excess material often goes to waste.

Moreover, the initial investment for equipment can be lower compared to other advanced manufacturing methods. 3D printers for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), for example, are becoming increasingly accessible. This democratization of technology makes it easier for small businesses and educational institutions to invest in additive manufacturing. Also, as material costs decrease, the overall expenditure associated with production is reduced further.

Design Flexibility

Design flexibility is another vital aspect of material extrusion additive manufacturing. Designers are not constrained by complex manufacturing techniques, as the digital nature of this process enables the creation of intricate geometries that would be hard to produce with conventional methods. Various designs, including those with complex internal structures or lightweight lattice formations, can be achieved easily. This flexibility opens avenues for innovation across different industries.

Customization is also easier; every component can be adjusted according to specific requirements without incurring significant additional costs. This ability to create tailored products enhances the efficiency of the design process. Additionally, modifications can be made rapidly, reducing the time from concept to final product that traditional methods would require.

Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is a cornerstone of the material extrusion process. This aspect significantly speeds up the development cycle for new products. Designers can produce functional prototypes quickly, allowing for iterative testing. This facilitates prompt feedback and adjustment in the design, which is essential for refining ideas and addressing challenges sooner.

The ability to test a design in real-world scenarios before full-scale production can result in better-performing products. In industries such as aerospace and medical devices, where performance is critical, the benefits of rapid prototyping are particularly pronounced. Consequently, teams can ensure that their final products meet stringent requirements effectively.

"The speed and efficiency of material extrusion enable companies to innovate faster and reduce time to market significantly."

Limitations and Challenges

Material extrusion additive manufacturing presents various challenges that professionals and researchers need to address. Understanding these limitations is critical to innovate and optimize processes and outcomes. The conversation surrounding the challenges of this technology not only focuses on its drawbacks but also encourages progress in the field. Recognizing the difficulties helps identify potential for improvement and evolves the practices used in material extrusion.

Material Constraints

Material constraints are a significant consideration in material extrusion additive manufacturing. While a variety of materials can be used, the choice is often limited to specific thermoplastics, such as Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Polylactic Acid (PLA). Each material has unique properties that govern its application.

The compatibility of materials with the extrusion process can also impact their performance. For instance, some materials may clog the nozzle, leading to inconsistent flow or failures. As a result, the spectrum of materials used is often narrower compared to other methods like powder bed fusion. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of printed parts can vary widely based on the material choice. This inconsistency can limit the use of certain materials in demanding applications, such as aerospace or medical devices.

Dimensional Accuracy

Dimensional accuracy is vital for the success of parts produced through material extrusion. However, achieving precision can be challenging. Factors such as the calibration of printers, the quality of the filament, and the printing environment can significantly affect the accuracy of the final product.

For example, variations in temperature and humidity can affect material behavior, causing warping during the cooling process. Additionally, extruder calibration errors may lead to defects in layer bonding, resulting in parts falling short of their intended specifications. The issue of dimensional accuracy becomes particularly crucial in applications where tight tolerances are essential. This variability can hinder widespread adoption, especially in industries with stringent regulatory standards.

Surface Finish Issues

Surface finish is an additional challenge faced by material extrusion techniques. A common observation is that the surface of extruded parts often lacks the smooth finish seen in traditionally manufactured components. Layer lines and visible seams can create aesthetic concerns and result in performance issues as well.

The surface finish not only affects appearance but also influences functional characteristics such as friction and adhesion. Poor surface quality can impact how parts interact when assembled, leading to mechanical failures. Furthermore, finishing processes may require additional steps to enhance the surface, raising overall production costs. Embracing innovative finishing techniques, post-processing methods, and improved printer capabilities will be necessary to overcome this hurdle.

Continuous research and development in material extrusion can provide pathways to address these limitations, enhancing both the reliability and versatility of the technology.

Applications of Material Extrusion

The application of material extrusion additive manufacturing fundamentally shapes various industries and sectors. It is vital to understand how this technology integrates into practical uses and what benefits it offers. The versatility of material extrusion processes allows for significant innovation. This section will focus on three key areas: the aerospace industry, medical field, and consumer products.

Aerospace Industry

Aerospace is one of the most demanding sectors. Material extrusion provides unique advantages. One significant aspect is weight reduction. Using lightweight materials reduces fuel consumption and enhances performance. Parts produced through material extrusion can often be more complex than those made by traditional methods.

Customization: Aircraft components often have unique designs tailored to specific aircraft models. Material extrusion enables the creation of these custom parts on-demand, thus reducing inventory costs.
Rapid Prototyping: The aerospace industry requires constant testing and validation of parts. Material extrusion allows for quick prototypes, which accelerates the design and approval processes.
Sustainability: Many companies are focusing on sustainable practices. Material extrusion can minimize waste, as it adds material only where required, supporting the industry's efforts towards more sustainable manufacturing.

"Innovations in material extrusion can reshape the future of aerospace manufacturing by providing solutions that prioritize sustainability and efficiency."

Medical Field

The medical industry also benefits greatly from material extrusion. It has revolutionized how medical devices and prosthetics are manufactured. Precision and customization are fundamental to medical applications, factors that material extrusion addresses quite effectively.

Personalized Devices: Custom implants and prosthetics can be produced, significantly impacting patient outcomes. These tailored solutions cater specifically to the anatomical needs of individuals.
Cost Efficiency: Producing medical parts through material extrusion can reduce costs. Traditional methods might involve expensive tooling and extensive labor, whereas additive manufacturing streamlines production.
Reduced Lead Times: Medical professionals often need rapid solutions, especially for prosthetics and surgical tools. Material extrusion provides quicker turn-around times, crucial in an industry where timing can affect lives.

Consumer Products

Challenges and solutions in material extrusion additive manufacturing

Material extrusion has gained traction in the consumer product market. Its ability to produce functional prototypes economically and efficiently is noteworthy.

Mass Customization: Brands are now offering customized products designed to meet individual consumer preferences. Material extrusion makes it feasible for businesses to produce these tailored items without the need for expensive setups.
Cost Reduction in Production: Lower production costs mean savings can be passed on to consumers. This is particularly crucial for small businesses that struggle with initial investment in manufacturing.
Innovation in Design: Traditional manufacturing often limits design complexity. However, material extrusion allows for intricate designs, differentiating products in a competitive market.

Overall, the applications of material extrusion add immense value across various sectors. Recognizing these benefits enables companies to harness the technology effectively, driving innovation and improving outcomes in each respective field.

Recent Innovations in Material Extrusion

Recent innovations in material extrusion have significantly impacted the landscape of additive manufacturing. These advancements are crucial for improving efficiency, enhancing material properties, and expanding the range of applications for this technology. Understanding these innovations allows practitioners to leverage new capabilities and address existing limitations effectively.

Hybrid Manufacturing Techniques

Hybrid manufacturing techniques combine traditional manufacturing processes with additive ones. This approach aims to produce complex geometries that were previously difficult or impossible to create using conventional methods alone. Innovations such as integrating machining and additive processes have led to improved accuracy and surface finish.

Hybrid techniques also allow for the use of multiple materials in a single production run. For instance, a component can be manufactured with a rigid substrate reinforced by flexible materials. This versatility enables the production of parts that meet diverse mechanical requirements. Furthermore, hybrid technologies facilitate in-situ monitoring and adjustments during the manufacturing process, resulting in increased quality control.

Sustainability Initiatives

Sustainability is becoming increasingly important across all industries, and material extrusion is no exception. Recent innovations focus on eco-friendly materials and processes that minimize waste and energy consumption. The development of bio-based thermoplastics is one area of growth, encouraging a shift towards renewable resources.

Additionally, innovations in recycling practices have emerged. Certain techniques now allow for the reuse of failed prints or leftover materials in new production runs. This not only helps in reducing waste but also cuts material costs.

Another significant advance involves energy-efficient extrusion methods that reduce the overall carbon footprint of production. These practices not only sustain the environment but can also improve the economic viability of additive manufacturing processes.

"Innovative practices in sustainability within material extrusion not only reduce environmental impact but also add to the economic efficiency of operations."

By adopting hybrid techniques and sustainability initiatives, companies can position themselves as leaders in responsible manufacturing while benefiting from the competitive advantages these innovations provide.

Future Directions for Research

The field of material extrusion additive manufacturing (AM) continues to evolve, presenting numerous opportunities for innovation. Research in this area is crucial to address the limitations inherent in current technologies and to leverage the potentials of new materials and methods. Research directions can lead to improved performance, efficiency, and sustainability of processes, ultimately influencing a wide range of industries.

Material Development

One promising area of research focuses on the development of advanced materials. Current thermoplastics have limitations in strength, durability, and heat resistance.

New Polymers: Exploring novel polymers or polymer blends can enhance mechanical properties, expanding the application range. For instance, incorporating additives like carbon fibers or glass fibers into thermoplastics holds potential for greater strength and stiffness.
Conductive Materials: There is also a growing interest in creating electrically conductive materials suitable for functional and electronic devices. This could change the landscape for applications in electronics and telecommunications.
Biodegradable Options: With an increasing focus on sustainability, the development of biodegradable filament materials can cater to environmentally conscious manufacturing practices.

Moreover, examining the interaction of materials during the extrusion process can inform the optimization of formulations. This allows for greater adaptability in varying production environments. Research should also assess the compatibility of new materials with existing printing technologies.

Process Optimization

Process optimization in material extrusion AM looks at enhancing operational efficiency and product quality. It involves examining various parameters affecting the extrusion process:

Temperature Control: Maintaining the correct temperature during extrusion is essential, as it impacts material flow and adhesion between layers. Research should focus on smart monitoring systems to ensure consistent temperatures throughout the process.
Print Speed and Layer Height: Adjusting print speeds and layer heights can significantly affect the production time and the final part's characteristics. Studies should analyze the trade-offs between speed and print quality to identify optimal settings for different materials.
Software Advances: The advancements in slicing software are also crucial. Enhanced algorithms can better predict how materials will behave during printing, allowing for proactive adjustments to printer settings.

In summary, as research continues in these directions, we can expect material extrusion additive manufacturing to become more efficient and versatile. This evolution will not only improve existing applications but also open doors to future possibilities in various sectors.

Finale

The conclusion serves as a critical reflection point in this article. It accentuates the significance of material extrusion additive manufacturing, which has evolved into a crucial technology influencing various industries. The ability to create objects layer by layer allows for significant design intricacies and customizations that traditional manufacturing methods struggle to achieve.

A few specific elements highlight the importance of this conclusion:

Synthesis of Key Insights: Summarizing the fundamental concepts discussed provides a clearer perspective on the material extrusion techniques, from the basic principles to the future directions.
Industry Resonance: Discussing the applications and benefits highlights material extrusion’s role in real-world applications, particularly in aerospace, medicine, and consumer products. This connection emphasizes its relevance to practitioners across multiple sectors.
Future Implications: This conclusion not only summarizes the present state of technology but also opens a discussion on the potential for future innovations, urging scholars and industry professionals to pursue ongoing research and development.

"Material extrusion additive manufacturing is shaping the future of production and design, making it crucial to stay informed and actively engaged in its advancements."

Summary of Key Points

The article has covered various aspects of material extrusion additive manufacturing. Here are the key points:

Definition and evolution of additive manufacturing.
Fundamental principles such as mechanics and layer-by-layer construction.
Common materials like thermoplastics, biomaterials, and composites used in this process.
Techniques including Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF).
Advantages such as cost-effectiveness, design flexibility, and rapid prototyping.
Challenges faced, including material constraints, dimensional accuracy, and surface finish issues.
Diverse applications across sectors like aerospace, healthcare, and consumer goods.
Recent innovations focusing on hybrid manufacturing techniques and sustainability.
Future research directions, particularly regarding material development and process optimization.

The Path Forward

Looking ahead, the path for material extrusion additive manufacturing is filled with promising opportunities. Industry advancements will likely move toward:

Enhanced Material Properties: Continued research into novel materials may lead to stronger, lighter, and more durable prints. Advances in biomaterials also hold potential for medical applications.
Process Improvements: Increasing efficiency in the printing process will be central. This includes optimizing speed and accuracy, which could significantly elevate production standards.
Integration with AI and Automation: The incorporation of artificial intelligence and automation could streamline the manufacturing work process. These technologies would not only improve production rates but also reduce the human error factor.
Sustainability Efforts: As industries shift toward environmentally responsible practices, material extrusion processes will increasingly adopt sustainable approaches. Research will focus on recycling waste materials and reducing energy consumption during production.

These developments will require collaborative efforts between researchers, industry professionals, and policymakers to drive the future of material extrusion additive manufacturing.

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